{"id":30951,"date":"2016-04-04T20:33:53","date_gmt":"2016-04-05T01:33:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.findlaw-admin.com\/ability-legal\/constitution\/amendment14.html"},"modified":"2024-07-26T15:10:00","modified_gmt":"2024-07-26T20:10:00","slug":"amendment14","status":"publish","type":"constitution","link":"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14.html","title":{"rendered":"The Fourteenth Amendment"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<div class=\"wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7  fl-block-columns fl-sectionWithSidebar fl-container fl-flex fl-flex-wrap fl-gap30\">\n<div class=\"fl-page-articles   fl-block-column fl-section-main fl-section-main-full-width\"><div\n    data-testid=\"fl-general-title\"\n    class=\"fl-general-title fl-flex fl-gap20 fl-items-end\"\n>\n    <div class=\"fl-general-title-heading fl-flex fl-flex-column\">\n        <h1\n            class=\"fl-h1 fl-general-title-title fl-no-spacing\"\n            data-testid=\"fl-general-title-title\"\n        >\n            The Fourteenth Amendment \n        <\/h1>\n        <p\n            class=\"fl-general-title-description fl-text-xl fl-no-margin\"\n            data-testid=\"fl-general-title-description\"\n        >\n            Privileges and Immunities of Citizenship, Due Process, and Equal Protection\n        <\/p>\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<section class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline\">\n    <div class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-content\">\n                    By <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team.html\" rel=\"noopener\">FindLaw Staff<\/a> | Legally reviewed by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team\/laura-temme-esq\/\" rel=\"noopener\">Laura Temme, Esq.<\/a>\n                | Last reviewed\n        <time>\n                            July 26, 2024\n                    <\/time>\n    <\/div>\n\n    \n    <details class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle fl-gutenberg-byline-legally-reviewed\">\n        <summary>\n            <i class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n            Legally Reviewed\n        <\/summary>\n\n        <div class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle-content\">\n            <p><em>This article has been written and reviewed for legal accuracy, clarity, and style by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team.html\" rel=\"noopener\">FindLaw\u2019s team of legal writers and attorneys<\/a> and in accordance with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/company-history\/editorial-policy.html\" rel=\"noopener\">our editorial standards<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\n    <\/details>\n\n    <details class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle fl-gutenberg-byline-fast-checked\">\n        <summary>\n            <i class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n            Fact-Checked\n        <\/summary>\n\n        <div class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle-content\">\n            <p><em>The last updated date refers to the last time this article was reviewed by FindLaw or one of our <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team\/contributing-authors.html\" rel=\"noopener\">contributing authors<\/a>. We make every effort to keep our articles updated. For information regarding a specific legal issue affecting you, please <a href=\"https:\/\/lawyers.findlaw.com\/?fli=bylinelink\" rel=\"noopener\">contact an attorney in your area<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\n    <\/details>\n<\/section>\n\n\n\n<p>The Fourteenth Amendment, ratified during the Reconstruction Era, gives Americans a bundle of rights, including birthright citizenship, equal protection, and due process. It provides a solid foundation for a more perfect union. And our understanding and application of the Fourteenth Amendment have evolved as our nation has evolved.<\/p>\n<p>The U.S. Civil War was more than just a bitter conflict between the North and the South.\u00a0 It produced a seismic social and political shift in American society that still impacts us today.\u00a0Following the war, slavery was abolished, and the nation embarked on Reconstruction. The Reconstruction Amendments to the United States Constitution were instrumental in laying the groundwork for these efforts:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment13.html#:~:text=What%20the%20Thirteenth%20Amendment%20Says,place%20subject%20to%20their%20jurisdiction.\">Thirteenth Amendment<\/a>\u00a0officially abolished slavery.\u00a0<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.archives.gov\/milestone-documents\/14th-amendment#:~:text=No%20State%20shall%20make%20or,equal%20protection%20of%20the%20laws.\" rel=\"noopener\">Fourteenth Amendment<\/a>\u00a0offered a significant bundle of citizenship rights.\u00a0<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.archives.gov\/milestone-documents\/15th-amendment\" rel=\"noopener\">Fifteenth Amendment<\/a>\u00a0granted voting rights to Black men.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This article focuses on the Fourteenth Amendment. It provides an overview of the Amendment, including the historical backdrop that made Congress amend the U.S. Constitution.<\/p>\n<h2><b>The U.S. Civil War and Constitutional Crisis<\/b><\/h2>\n<p>The American Civil War lasted four years, in which eleven Southern states seceded from the Union to form the Confederate States of America. These Southern states relied on agriculture and the free labor of enslaved Africans to support their way of life.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Although historians cite many reasons for the secession and the war that followed, the role of slavery in American society was chief among them.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Before the war ended, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which, theoretically, freed all enslaved persons in America.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>That was the easy part. The Constitutional crisis that began when those eleven states voted to secede from the Union did not end with the war.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<h3><b>Reconstruction and the Need for Amendments<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>Since Lincoln used his war powers to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, Congress had to act to ensure that the nation would not return to slavery. They rightfully believed a constitutional amendment would carry more weight than Lincoln&#8217;s order.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>After the war, Reconstruction began, and Congress had to determine the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>How to integrate formerly enslaved people into American society<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p>How to bring former Confederates back into the fold<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p>How to deal with our national debt following the war<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The Fourteenth Amendment helped Congress accomplish these goals.<\/p>\n<h2><b>Fourteenth Amendment Fundamentals<\/b><\/h2>\n<p>Congress passed the Fourteenth Amendment in 1866 during the post-Civil War Reconstruction Era. Although African Americans briefly enjoyed some freedoms, many states quickly imposed legislation, the Black Codes, to control them.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/constitutioncenter.org\/the-constitution\/historic-document-library\/detail\/mississippi-south-carolina-black-codes-1865\" rel=\"noopener\">The Black Codes<\/a>\u00a0covered almost every area of life, from labor to marriage, and required strict racial separation.\u00a0It was clear that the federal government needed to intervene.<\/p>\n<p>Congress answered the call with\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitutioncenter.org\/the-constitution\/historic-document-library\/detail\/civil-rights-act-of-1866-april-9-1866-an-act-to-protect-all-persons-in-the-united-states-in-their-civil-rights-and-furnish-the-means-of-their-vindication\" rel=\"noopener\">the Civil Rights Act of 1866,<\/a>\u00a0giving African Americans fundamental economic rights, including the right to create contracts.\u00a0 Yet, this was not enough.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<h2><b>Parts of the Fourteenth Amendment<\/b><\/h2>\n<p>Amendments to the United States Constitution are rare by design. It is not an easy process, which helps underscore the significance of the Reconstruction Amendments.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>The Fourteenth Amendment accomplished many different objectives at once.\u00a0This Amendment ensured equal rights for the newly freed citizens through five clauses:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation01.html\">Citizenship clause<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation02.html\">Privileges or immunities clause<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation03.html\">Due process clause<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation04.html\">Equal protection clause<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation15.html\">Disqualification clause<\/a><\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The amendment also grants Congress the power to pass legislation that supports these objectives via the <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation38.html\">enforcement clause<\/a>.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>The full text of the Fourteenth Amendment states:<\/p>\n<p><i>&#8220;All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and\u00a0of\u00a0the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><i>Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime,\u00a0the basis of representation therein shall be reduced\u00a0in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><i>No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><i>The validity of the\u00a0public debt of the United States, authorized by law,\u00a0including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned.\u00a0But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any\u00a0slave; but\u00a0all\u00a0such debts, obligations\u00a0and\u00a0claims shall be held\u00a0illegal and void.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><i>The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.&#8221;<\/i><\/p>\n<h3><b>The Citizenship Clause<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The Fourteenth Amendment&#8217;s first clause addresses U.S. citizenship and who can claim it.\u00a0Although the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation01.html\">citizenship clause\u00a0<\/a>is\u00a0clear, it was necessary after the Supreme Court&#8217;s decision in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/supreme-court-insights\/dred-scott-v--sandford--history--decision--and-impact.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Dred Scott v Sanford<\/i><\/a><i>,<\/i>\u00a0which denied citizenship rights to formerly enslaved persons born in the U.S.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Dred Scott was born into slavery.\u00a0Dr. John Emerson purchased Scott after his enslaver died and took him to the Wisconsin Territory, where slavery was illegal.\u00a0Scott met and married his wife, Harriett Robinson, and had two children there.\u00a0The family relocated to St. Louis with Emerson a few years later.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>At that time, per a Missouri statute, an enslaved person taken to a free state was automatically free. \u00a0In theory, that person could not lose their status if they returned to a slave state.\u00a0 When Emerson&#8217;s widow transferred ownership of the Scott family to her brother, the Scotts sued for their freedom.\u00a0The case ultimately came before the Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS), where they lost.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<i>Scott<\/i>\u00a0Court determined that Scott was not an American citizen because he descended from Africans brought to the country as\u00a0slaves. Therefore, he could not bring a suit in federal court.\u00a0This decision applied to all Americans of African descent at the time.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>The citizenship clause overturned the\u00a0<i>Dred Scott<\/i>\u00a0decision and ensured that everyone born or naturalized in the United States was a citizen.\u00a0<\/p>\n<h3><b>The Privileges and Immunities Clause<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The Fourteenth Amendment&#8217;s second clause deals with\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation02.html\">privileges and immunities<\/a>.\u00a0 The privileges and immunities clause ensures that all citizens enjoy the same rights in each state.\u00a0 SCOTUS, the final arbiter of U.S. Constitutional law, has wrestled with defining these privileges and immunities since the Amendment became law.<\/p>\n<p>In\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/supreme-court-insights\/the-slaughterhouse-cases--decision-summary-and-impact.html\" rel=\"noopener\">the\u00a0<i>Slaughter-House\u00a0C<\/i><\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/83\/36.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>ases<\/i><\/a>, SCOTUS determined that the privileges and immunities contemplated in the Amendment only included those rights already enumerated in the Constitution.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>The Slaughterhouse Cases came out of Louisiana. The Louisiana legislature gave an exclusive monopoly to a slaughterhouse company in New Orleans.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Local independent butchers sued in state court.\u00a0They argue that this monopoly violated their rights under the Fourteenth Amendment.\u00a0 They believed that the law was unconstitutional because it deprived them of the privilege of operating their\u00a0own\u00a0slaughterhouses.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>SCOTUS disagreed.\u00a0They noted that the privileges and immunities clause only applied to the federal government\u00a0and not\u00a0state citizenship.\u00a0In other words, the Fourteenth Amendment only applied to privileges and immunities of national citizenship as found in the Constitution.<\/p>\n<h3><b>The Due Process Clause<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation03.html\">due process clause<\/a>\u00a0ensures that no one\u00a0is denied life, liberty, or property without due process of law.\u00a0The Supreme Court has recognized two types of due process:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\n<p>Procedural due process<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li>\n<p>Substantive due process<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Procedural due process addresses the procedures a government can use\u00a0in applying\u00a0the law.\u00a0 Substantive due process addresses fundamental rights.<\/p>\n<p><b>Procedural Due Process<\/b><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/373\/83.html#:~:text=In%20Brady%20v.,took%20part%20in%20the%20crime.\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Brady v. Maryland\u00a0<\/i><\/a>provides a good illustration of procedural due process.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>In\u00a0<i>Brady<\/i>, Maryland, prosecutors withheld favorable evidence from a defendant in a murder trial. The evidence was a statement in which the defendant&#8217;s companion confessed to the murder.\u00a0The defendant&#8217;s counsel asked to see the companion&#8217;s statements. But the prosecution withheld that statement with the confession.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>SCOTUS held that this willful suppression of evidence\u00a0violated the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.\u00a0Because this case dealt with\u00a0<i>how<\/i>\u00a0the government acted, it is an example of procedural due process.<\/p>\n<p><b>Substantive Due Process<\/b><\/p>\n<p>Substantive due process deals with our individual and fundamental rights.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/supreme-court-insights\/obergefell-v--hodges-case-summary-and-significance.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Obergefell v. Hodges<\/i><\/a><i> <\/i>provides a recent example of substantive due process.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><i>Obergefell<\/i>\u00a0dealt with same-sex marriage and individual states&#8217; refusal to recognize these marriages.\u00a0The Court recognized the right to marry\u00a0as a fundamental right guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment.\u00a0They held that states could not deprive same-sex couples of this right.<\/p>\n<h3><b>The Equal Protection Clause<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The equal protection doctrine ensures that all Americans enjoy equal protection of their rights under the law. \u00a0The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation04.html\">equal protection clause<\/a>\u00a0helps support this doctrine.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><i>Obergefell<\/i>\u00a0is also an example of the equal protection doctrine.\u00a0 State laws that separate same-sex and opposite-sex marriages\u00a0violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.<\/p>\n<h3><b>The\u00a0Disqualification Clause<\/b><\/h3>\n<p>The purpose of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation15.html\">disqualification clause<\/a>\u00a0was to ensure former Confederate officials did not return to public office after the Civil War.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Although this clause\u00a0was explicitly directed\u00a0at former Confederate officials in the late 19th century, it\u00a0was recently used\u00a0(2022) to remove a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/apnews.com\/article\/supreme-court-insurrection-capitol-attack-new-mexico-cc69572ec4a4404c69947d7d91b3960a\" rel=\"noopener\">New Mexico County commissioner from office.<\/a><\/p>\n<h2><b>State Action Doctrine<\/b><\/h2>\n<p>The Fourteenth Amendment only applies to actions by\u00a0state governments (<a href=\"https:\/\/dictionary.findlaw.com\/definition\/state-action.html\" rel=\"noopener\">state actions<\/a>), not private actions. Consider, for example,\u00a0<i>Obergefell<\/i>, which involved the fundamental right to marry. Some state laws interfered with that right. The state law is a government action.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Courts also attribute the discriminatory actions of state officers (Governor, Sheriff, Judges) to the state.\u00a0This\u00a0is true even if the state did not authorize the discriminatory conduct.\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<h2><b>The Fourteenth Amendment and the Evolution of Civil Rights<\/b><\/h2>\n<p>Many people view the Constitution as a living document, ever-evolving.\u00a0\u00a0This\u00a0is especially true of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Fourteenth Amendment has played a decisive role in the evolution of civil rights in America and in shaping American society. \u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Civil rights strategists have used this Amendment to ensure all Americans enjoy the Constitution&#8217;s promises.\u00a0This\u00a0was the case with\u00a0<i>Brown v. Board of Education<\/i>,\u00a0the landmark civil rights case that\u00a0overturned the separate but equal doctrine from\u00a0<i>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/i>.<\/p>\n<h3>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/supreme-court-insights\/plessy-v--ferguson-case-summary.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Plessy v. Ferguson<\/i><\/a>\u00a0is a landmark case that\u00a0legalized the separate but equal doctrine.\u00a0Homer Plessy challenged the constitutionality of a Louisiana law requiring separate train cars for black and white passengers under the Fourteenth Amendment.\u00a0In 1896, the Supreme Court determined that the law was constitutional, effectively ushering in a period of legalized racial segregation in America.\u00a0<\/p>\n<h3>Brown v. Board of Education<\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/supreme-court-insights\/understanding-brown-v--board-of-education--a-case-summary.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Brown v. Board of Education<\/i><\/a><i> <\/i>challenged the separate but equal doctrine as\u00a0applied to public schools.\u00a0 The\u00a0<i>Brown<\/i>\u00a0court held that the segregation of black and white children in public schools based solely on race denies black children equal protection under the 14th Amendment.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Twelve years later, the Court again relied on the 14th Amendment when it struck down anti-miscegenation laws in\u00a0<i>Loving v. Virginia.<\/i>\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<h3>Loving v. Virginia<\/h3>\n<p>In\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/supreme-court-insights\/loving-v--virginia-case-summary.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Loving v. Virginia<\/i><\/a><i>,<\/i>\u00a0Richard and Mildred Loving sued the state of Virginia over Virginia&#8217;s laws banning interracial marriage.\u00a0\u00a0Virginia passed the Racial Integrity Act of 1924, which\u00a0prohibited marriages between black and white Virginians.\u00a0 The Supreme Court held that Virginia&#8217;s\u00a0laws violated the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses of the Fourteenth Amendment.<\/p>\n<p>The Court has also applied the Fourteenth Amendment in sex discrimination cases (<a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/404\/71.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Reed v. Reed<\/i><\/a>), the right to privacy (<a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/410\/113.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Roe v. Wade<\/i>)<\/a>, same-sex marriage (<a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/14-556.html\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Obergefell v. Hodges<\/i><\/a><i>)<\/i>\u00a0and helped shape society as we know it.<\/p>\n<p>These cases illustrate the broad and lasting impact the Fourteenth Amendment has had on both America and Americans.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div\n    class=\"fl-category-overview\"\n    data-testid=\"fl-category-overview\"\n>\n    <div\n        class=\"fl-accordion fl-category-overview-container\"\n        id=\"category-overview\"\n        data-testid=\"fl-accordion\"\n    >\n                    <div\n               class=\"fl-accordion-item fl-category-overview-item\"\n               id=\"section-1-category-overview\"\n               aria-labelledby=\"button-1-category-overview\"\n               data-testid=\"fl-accordion-item\"\n            >\n                <h2\n                    class=\"fl-accordion-header fl-flex fl-items-center fl-justify-between fl-no-margin\"\n                    data-testid=\"fl-accordion-header\"\n                >\n                    <button\n                        id=\"button-1-category-overview\"\n                        aria-label=\"Category 1 content\"\n                        aria-expanded=\"false\"\n                        aria-controls=\"section-1-category-overview\"\n                        class=\"fl-accordion-button fl-flex fl-flex-auto fl-justify-between\"\n                        type=\"button\"\n                    >\n                        Equal Protection\n                        <span aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                            <i\n                                class=\"fa fa-angle-down small\"\n                                aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                            ><\/i>\n                        <\/span>\n                    <\/button>\n                <\/h2>\n                <div\n                    class=\"fl-accordion-content\"\n                    data-testid=\"fl-accordion-content\"\n                    id=\"content-1-category-overview\"\n                >\n                    <ul class=\"fl-no-margin fl-list\">\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation04.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>Equal Protection Under the Fourteenth Amendment<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation05.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>Equal Protection Cases Based on Race<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation06.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>Equal Protection Cases Based on Gender<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation10.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>Affirmative Action Under the Fourteenth Amendment<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                            <\/ul>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n                    <div\n               class=\"fl-accordion-item fl-category-overview-item\"\n               id=\"section-2-category-overview\"\n               aria-labelledby=\"button-2-category-overview\"\n               data-testid=\"fl-accordion-item\"\n            >\n                <h2\n                    class=\"fl-accordion-header fl-flex fl-items-center fl-justify-between fl-no-margin\"\n                    data-testid=\"fl-accordion-header\"\n                >\n                    <button\n                        id=\"button-2-category-overview\"\n                        aria-label=\"Category 1 content\"\n                        aria-expanded=\"false\"\n                        aria-controls=\"section-2-category-overview\"\n                        class=\"fl-accordion-button fl-flex fl-flex-auto fl-justify-between\"\n                        type=\"button\"\n                    >\n                        Due Process\n                        <span aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                            <i\n                                class=\"fa fa-angle-down small\"\n                                aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                            ><\/i>\n                        <\/span>\n                    <\/button>\n                <\/h2>\n                <div\n                    class=\"fl-accordion-content\"\n                    data-testid=\"fl-accordion-content\"\n                    id=\"content-2-category-overview\"\n                >\n                    <ul class=\"fl-no-margin fl-list\">\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation03.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>Fourteenth Amendment Due Process<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation07.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>Due Process and Public Safety<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation12.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>How the Fourteenth Amendment Protects Voting Rights<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                            <\/ul>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n                    <div\n               class=\"fl-accordion-item fl-category-overview-item\"\n               id=\"section-3-category-overview\"\n               aria-labelledby=\"button-3-category-overview\"\n               data-testid=\"fl-accordion-item\"\n            >\n                <h2\n                    class=\"fl-accordion-header fl-flex fl-items-center fl-justify-between fl-no-margin\"\n                    data-testid=\"fl-accordion-header\"\n                >\n                    <button\n                        id=\"button-3-category-overview\"\n                        aria-label=\"Category 1 content\"\n                        aria-expanded=\"false\"\n                        aria-controls=\"section-3-category-overview\"\n                        class=\"fl-accordion-button fl-flex fl-flex-auto fl-justify-between\"\n                        type=\"button\"\n                    >\n                        Other Topics\n                        <span aria-hidden=\"true\">\n                            <i\n                                class=\"fa fa-angle-down small\"\n                                aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                            ><\/i>\n                        <\/span>\n                    <\/button>\n                <\/h2>\n                <div\n                    class=\"fl-accordion-content\"\n                    data-testid=\"fl-accordion-content\"\n                    id=\"content-3-category-overview\"\n                >\n                    <ul class=\"fl-no-margin fl-list\">\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation02.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>The Privileges and Immunities Clause<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation15.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>Disqualification from Public Office <\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation14.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>The Apportionment Clause<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation16.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>The Public Debt Clause<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-control-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-container\">\n                                <i\n                                    class=\"fa fa-angle-right small\"\n                                    aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                                ><\/i>\n                            <\/div>\n                            <div class=\"fl-list-control-text\">\n                                <a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment14\/annotation38.html\" class=\"fl-list-item-link\">\n                                    <span>The Enforcement Clause<\/span>\n                                <\/a>\n                            <\/div>\n                        <\/li>\n                                            <\/ul>\n                <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n            <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"was-this-helpful\">\n    <div\n            class=\"was-this-helpful__question-container\"\n            aria-labelledby=\"was-this-helpful__question\"\n            role=\"group\"\n    >\n        <span\n                id=\"was-this-helpful__question\"\n                class=\"was-this-helpful__question fl-text-lg-bold\"\n        >Was this helpful?<\/span>\n        <button\n                class=\"was-this-helpful__button fl-text-sm\"\n                aria-label=\"Yes\"\n                value=\"yes\"\n        >\n            <span class=\"was-this-helpful__button-text fl-text-bold\">Yes<\/span>\n            <i class=\"was-this-helpful__button-icon\">\n                <svg width=\"22\" height=\"22\" viewBox=\"0 0 22 22\" fill=\"none\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n                    <g id=\"thumbs-up\" clip-path=\"url(#clip0_604_3418)\">\n                        <path id=\"Vector\"\n                              d=\"M6 21H3C2.46957 21 1.96086 20.7893 1.58579 20.4142C1.21071 20.0391 1 19.5304 1 19V12C1 11.4696 1.21071 10.9609 1.58579 10.5858C1.96086 10.2107 2.46957 10 3 10H6M13 8V4C13 3.20435 12.6839 2.44129 12.1213 1.87868C11.5587 1.31607 10.7956 1 10 1L6 10V21H17.28C17.7623 21.0055 18.2304 20.8364 18.5979 20.524C18.9654 20.2116 19.2077 19.7769 19.28 19.3L20.66 10.3C20.7035 10.0134 20.6842 9.72068 20.6033 9.44225C20.5225 9.16382 20.3821 8.90629 20.1919 8.68751C20.0016 8.46873 19.7661 8.29393 19.5016 8.17522C19.2371 8.0565 18.9499 7.99672 18.66 8H13Z\"\n                              stroke=\"#666666\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\"\n                              stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><\/path>\n                    <\/g>\n                    <defs>\n                        <clipPath id=\"clip0_604_3418\">\n                            <rect width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"white\"><\/rect>\n                        <\/clipPath>\n                    <\/defs>\n                <\/svg>\n            <\/i>\n        <\/button>\n        <button\n                class=\"was-this-helpful__button fl-text-sm\"\n                aria-label=\"No\"\n                value=\"no\"\n        >\n            <span class=\"was-this-helpful__button-text fl-text-bold\">No<\/span>\n            <i class=\"was-this-helpful__button-icon\">\n                <svg width=\"22\" height=\"22\" viewBox=\"0 0 22 22\" fill=\"none\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n                    <g id=\"thumbs-down\" clip-path=\"url(#clip0_604_3423)\">\n                        <path id=\"Vector\"\n                              d=\"M16 0.999995H18.67C19.236 0.989986 19.7859 1.18813 20.2154 1.55681C20.645 1.9255 20.9242 2.43905 21 3V10C20.9242 10.5609 20.645 11.0745 20.2154 11.4432C19.7859 11.8119 19.236 12.01 18.67 12H16M9.00003 14V18C9.00003 18.7956 9.3161 19.5587 9.87871 20.1213C10.4413 20.6839 11.2044 21 12 21L16 12V0.999995H4.72003C4.2377 0.994543 3.76965 1.16359 3.40212 1.47599C3.0346 1.78839 2.79235 2.22309 2.72003 2.7L1.34003 11.7C1.29652 11.9866 1.31586 12.2793 1.39669 12.5577C1.47753 12.8362 1.61793 13.0937 1.80817 13.3125C1.99842 13.5313 2.23395 13.7061 2.49846 13.8248C2.76297 13.9435 3.05012 14.0033 3.34003 14H9.00003Z\"\n                              stroke=\"#666666\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n                    <\/g>\n                    <defs>\n                        <clipPath id=\"clip0_604_3423\">\n                            <rect width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"white\"\/>\n                        <\/clipPath>\n                    <\/defs>\n                <\/svg>\n            <\/i>\n        <\/button>\n    <\/div>\n    <span class=\"was-this-helpful__taken-action fl-text-sm-bold\"><\/span>\n    <div class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-container\">\n        <div class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message\" role=\"status\">\n            <p class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message-text\"><\/p>\n        <\/div>\n        <form class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-form\">\n            <div class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback was-this-helpful__feedback--positive\">\n                <fieldset>\n                    <legend class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Why was this helpful?<\/legend>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--understandable\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"positive-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Easy to understand\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--understandable\"\n                        >Easy to understand<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--solved-problem\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"positive-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Solved my problem\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--solved-problem\"\n                        >Solved my problem<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--other\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"positive-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Other\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--other\"\n                        >Other<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/fieldset>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback was-this-helpful__feedback--negative\">\n                <fieldset>\n                    <legend class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Why was this not helpful?<\/legend>\n                    <div class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message\" role=\"status\">\n                        <p class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message-text\"><\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--missing-info\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Missing Information\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--missing-info\"\n                        >Missing the information I need<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--complicated\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Too complicated\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--complicated\"\n                        >Too complicated \/ too many steps<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--dated\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Out of date\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--dated\"\n                        >Out of date<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--negative-other\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Other\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--negative-other\"\n                        >Other<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/fieldset>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"was-this-helpful__form-buttons-container\">\n                <button\n                    class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-button was-this-helpful__feedback-button--positive at-feedback-submit fl-button secondary\"\n                    type=\"submit\"\n                >\n                    <span class=\"fl-button-content\">Submit<\/span>\n                    <i\n                        class=\"fa fa-angle-right medium\"\n                        aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                    ><\/i>\n                <\/button>\n                <button\n                    class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-button was-this-helpful__feedback-button--cancel fl-button primary disabled\"\n                    type=\"reset\"\n                >\n                    <span class=\"fl-button-content\">Cancel<\/span>\n                    <i\n                        class=\"fa fa-times-circle medium\"\n                        aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                    ><\/i>\n                <\/button>\n            <\/div>\n        <\/form>\n    <\/div>\n    <div class=\"was-this-helpful__thank-you-message\" role=\"status\">\n        <i class=\"was-this-helpful__thank-you-message-icon fa fa-check\"><\/i>\n        <p class=\"was-this-helpful__thank-you-message-text\" aria-live=\"polite\"><\/p>\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"fl-block-column fl-section-sidebar\">\n                        \n\n<div class=\"generalCardContainer\">\n            \n<div\n    class=\"fl-image-card fl-image-card--no-max-width fl-image-card--no-min-height fl-card-with-children fl-latl-card fl-image-card-title-on-image fl-flex fl-flex-column\"\n>\n                    <a class=\"\" href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\">\n\n            <div class=\"fl-image-card-image-wrapper fl-image-card-image-wrapper-default\">\n                <img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\"\n                     src=\"https://constitution.findlaw.com/static/c/images\/images\/w_1200,c_limit,dpr_auto\/f_auto,q_auto:eco\/v1750679574\/ability-legal\/wp-prod\/general-components-hero-lp-constitution-hero-banner\/general-components-hero-lp-constitution-hero-banner.jpg?_i=AA\"\n                     alt=\"\"\n                ><\/img>\n                                    <span class=\"fl-eyebrow fl-image-card-eyebrow\">U.S. Constitution<\/span>\n                                            <\/div>\n                <\/a>\n\n        <div class=\"fl-image-card-content fl-flex-basis-100\">\n                    <h2>More On the Constitution<\/h2>\n<p>Learn about the most important legal document in the United States.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/\">Read more &gt;<\/a><\/p>\n\n            <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"general-list\">\n    <h3>You May Also Like<\/h3>\n    <ul class=\"fl-list fl-no-margin\">\n                                    <li class=\"fl-list-item fl-flex\">\n                    <i class=\"fa fa-angle-right medium\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n                    <a class=\"fl-list-item-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/civilrights\/discrimination\/employment-discrimination-u-s-supreme-court-cases.html\" rel=\"noopener\">\n                        Employment Discrimination\n                    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<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<div class=\"popularRecent\">\n    <div class=\"row popular-recent\">\n        <h2 class=\"popular-recent-title\">Looking for More Information?<\/h2>\n        <div class=\"popular-recent-item\">\n            <div class=\"popular-recent-item-image\">\n                <img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https://constitution.findlaw.com/static/c/images\/images\/w_1200,c_limit,dpr_auto\/f_auto,q_auto:eco\/v1750688573\/ability-legal\/wp-prod\/general-components-popular-recent-popular\/general-components-popular-recent-popular.svg?_i=AA\"\n                    alt=\"\">\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"popular-recent-item-content\">\n                <h3>Popular Law Articles<\/h3>\n                <ul class=\"fl-list\">\n                                            <li class=\"fl-list-item fl-flex\">\n                            <i class=\"fa fa-angle-right medium\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n                            <a 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